Neanderthals were an extinct human species that lived in Europe and western Asia. They appeared around 400,000 years ago and disappeared about 40,000 years ago, shortly after modern humans entered their territory. Their bodies were stocky and muscular, adapted to cold climates. Their brains were as large as ours, sometimes larger. They made Mousterian tools, controlled fire, hunted large game, and buried their dead.

For much of the 20th century, Neanderthals were portrayed as brutish and dim. That picture has collapsed. Fossil evidence shows healed injuries that imply care for the sick and injured. Pigments and shell ornaments suggest symbolic behavior. Genetic studies reveal that Neanderthals interbred with Homo sapiens; most people outside Africa carry a small percentage of Neanderthal DNA. They were not a separate species in any simple sense. They were close relatives, and they left traces in us.

What we know

• Lived in small mobile groups across Eurasia.
• Made Mousterian stone tools and some bone tools.
• Buried their dead with possible ritual care.
• Interbred with modern humans.

Neanderthals did not lose a simple contest. They were absorbed, outcompeted, or both, depending on the region.