When the western Roman Empire fragmented, its eastern half continued. The Byzantine Empire, with its capital at Constantinople, preserved Roman law and administration while developing a distinct Greek-speaking, Christian culture. It lasted until the Ottoman conquest of 1453.

Justinian’s sixth-century reconquests and legal codification marked an early high point. Later centuries saw defensive struggles against Persian, Arab, and Turkish expansion, punctuated by periods of artistic and intellectual flourishing. Orthodox Christianity and the imperial court shaped identity and diplomacy.

Byzantine art, architecture, and manuscript traditions influenced both the Slavic world and western Europe. Historians once dismissed the empire as static; modern scholarship emphasizes its adaptability and long survival under continuous pressure. The fall of Constantinople closed a millennium of continuity with the classical Roman state.

• Eastern Roman Empire lasting until 1453
• Centered on Constantinople
• Greek-speaking and Orthodox Christian
• Preserved and transformed Roman traditions